Sensors and actuators for safer driving in Automotive Industry

What is a sensor?

A Sensor is a device which detect the presence of energy,

changes in or the transfer of energy. Sensors detect by

receiving a signal from a device such as a transducer,

then responding to that signal by converting it into an

output that can easily be read and understood.

Typically, sensors convert a recognized signal into an

electrical – Analog or Digital – output that is readable.

We can find hundreds of automotive sensors that

measure all sorts of magnitudes. Some of these may

be: temperatures, engine air flow intake, distance from an obstacle, motion, etc.

Ø  What is an Actuator and what is its purpose in the automotive industry?

Ø 

Actuators are tasked with supplying a force to move or “actuate” another mechanical device. The job of actuators is to convert electrical signals from the control unit into a controlled action. In short, actuators are the end items that allow for the modification of variables to be controlled within an automated installation.

Actuators are an essential part of vehicle electro mechanics, and for the most part, they are electric motors and gear motors, or electromagnetic valves that govern, for example, braking and steering systems.

Various roles of Sensors and actuators in automotive safety:

1.      Electronic accelerator

Until not long ago, information transmission from the accelerator was performed mechanically, through a steel cable that was connected to the throttle. Nowadays, vehicles have an electronic throttle control that has a sensor in the pedal. This element detects the exact position of the pedal at all times and relays it to the engine control module, which prompts an actuator to change the aperture of the throttle valve.

2.      Parking sensor

Parking sensors are parking assistance devices installed in the vehicle’s bumpers, especially in the rear ones. These components inform about the obstacles that may exist in blind spots.

These parking sensors warn the driver by an acoustic signal when they detect any obstacle, increasing their intensity to prevent a possible strike.

Different types of parking sensors. There are some main types of parking sensors:

a.      Ultrasound sensors: 

Sensors that have a detection field between 130 and 160 degrees horizontally and between 50 and 60 vertically.

b.       Electromagnetic detection sensors: 

Their own operation is based on the detection of disturbances in the electromagnetic field produced by solid objects, being more resistant to possible strikes.

3.      Crankshaft sensor:

The crankshaft sensor, or CKP sensor, sends raw data to the engine’s computer about its exact position and, since it is connected to the pistons, the information about its position helps identify the position of the various critical engine, piston, belt and valve components.

When operating, the crankshaft sensor uses a metallic disc and a sensor that is covered by a magnetic coil. The movement of the disk on the coil causes a magnetic field disturbance, creating electric pulses. Then the engine control unit uses them to extrapolate the speed and position of the crankshaft.

A crankshaft malfunction mainly affects the start-up timings and fuel consumption; even though it hinders the entire engine functionality.

4.      Temperature sensors

Also known as thermistors. Temperature sensors provide an electric signal depending on the temperature they are subjected to. Since the introduction of microsystem technologies for the performance of various passive safety and comfort functions (passenger position for airbag triggering, air conditioning adjustment depending on body temperature, windshield defrosting, etc.) contactless temperature sensors are used (pyrometer).

5.      Brake assist

The emergency brake assist (EBA) or brake assist system (BAS) in one of the most groundbreaking safety devices in current models. These systems are capable of activating the vehicle’s brakes without any input from the driver. How does this system work?

The BAS system measures the rate at which the accelerator pedal is released and activates the brake. On the other hand, it also collects data regarding the pressure used in the braking system to interpret if it is an emergency braking. For its operation, the system has a speed or force sensor located next to the brake pedal, a valve with an actuator that increases the pressure in the braking circuit, and a control unit that manages the entire system based on the measurements taken by the sensor.

Brake assist systems using radar technology have also appeared, with the purpose of identifying possible obstacles on the road and assist the driver in braking in case an unforeseen hazardous situation emerges.

6.      MAF sensor 

Also called air flow sensor or mass flow sensor. This component electronically measures the amount of air entering the engine. This information is analysed and automated with the purpose of controlling the injection system’s air-fuel mix and start-up adjustment.

The MAF sensor is located before the engine’s inlet manifold and after the air filter, and its signal is interpreted in grams per second flow rate. When a greater air flow enters the engine, RPMs increase, and thus, temperature does as well. The MAF system has a platinum wire that also measures temperature and relays it to the control unit. This allows for the detection of engine anomalies and anticipate possible failures.

7.      Sensors and actuators in the electronic fuel injection system

The electronic fuel injection system in a vehicle is in charge of providing the fuel dosage. An injection system actuator that can be used to improve this aspect are: fuel pump relay, purge valve, IAC valve (with actuators that adjust the air flow and control the revolutions of the engine when idling), etc.

Metro-logy: Introduction, Types and History

     Metro-logy is defined as "the science of measurement, embracing both experimental and theoretical determinations at any level of uncertainty in any field of science and technology". It establishes a common understanding of units, crucial to human activity.

There are three types of Metrology:

• Scientific Metrology
• Applied, Technical or Industrial Metrology
• Legal Metrology 

Scientific (fundamental) metrology

     Scientific or fundamental metrology concerns the setting of measurement standards and the establishment of units of measurement, unit systems and quantity systems. Additionally, scientific metrology involves the development of new methods of measuring as well as the transfer of tractability from the standards to users.

Applied, technical or industrial metrology

     Industrial metrology is the area of metrology science. Applied, technical or industrial metrology involves the application of measurement science to industrial processes including manufacturing. Additionally, industrial metrology ensures the suitability and adequate functioning of measurement instruments, their calibration and quality control of measurements.

Legal metrology

     Defined by the International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) as “the application of legal requirements to measurements and measuring instruments”, legal metrology ensures the accuracy and reliability of measurements where measured values can affect health, public safety, the environment and the protection of consumers and fair trade. 

THE HISTORY OF METROLOGY FROM GALILEO TO OPTICAL SYSTEMS

     Metrology originates from antiquity. The first forms of measurements were established to facilitate commerce and record human activity. Time, weight and length were the first standards formulated. Over the course of history, dimensional metrology went through several evolution.

Before 1789 (KING’S FOOT)

     Scientists estimate that thousands of different measurement units are used across Europe. Among them figure the pied duroi (the king’s foot), which has a degree of pre-eminence. Nevertheless, many traders have their own measuring tools, giving scope for frauds, extortions, and misrepresentations. It is not until the establishment of the metric system that we started to see harmonization in measurements.

1795 (METRIC SYSTEM)

     The French Revolutionary government introduces the metric system, now known as the International System of Units. One meter was preliminary defined as one ten millionth of the distance between the North Pole and the Equator crossing through Paris. Of course, the meter definition has evolved over the centuries, but is still considered today as the length reference to which every measuring tool refers.

1840 (PHOTOGRAMMETRY)

     The first use of photogrammetry appears shortly after the emergence of photography. The credit goes to French geodesist, François Arago. He presents to the Academy of Science, a method using triangulation. This technology enables him to determine the position of objects in space based on photographs taken from different viewing angles, without knowing the position of the shots beforehand.

1848 (SYSTEM PALMER) 

     French inventor J. Palmer receives a patent for the ‘System Palmer’, the first micrometre still recognizable today with its U-shaped frame. Modern micrometres closely follow the System Palmer’s basic design of a U-shaped frame, thimble, sleeve, spindle, anvil, etc. Besides, all micrometres and other hand tools must still be traceable to the International Standard.

1887 (MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER) 

     American Physicist Albert A. Michelson thought detection of motion through ether might be measurable. To do so, he invents a new instrument called the interferometer. The results he obtains during his experiments prove there is no earth motion relative to ether. This proof changes the foundation of physics and leads to Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity in 1905.

1960 (CMM)

     The Coordinate Measuring Machine first appears in the early 60s and is made of 3D tracing devices with a simple digital readout (DRO) displaying the XYZ position. The initial CMM was developed by the Ferranti Company in Scotland during the 50s. This unit, however, had only two axis. The very first three-axis prototypes arrive during the 1960s and are invented by the Italian company DEA (now part of the Hexagon Metrology Group).

Soon afterwards, automated CMMs appear in the 60s to perform complex inspections of Concorde supersonic jet engines. This invention leads to the creation of the Renishaw Company in 1973, now the main supplier of CMM measuring heads.

1980 (PORTABLE CMM) 

     Portable CMMs with measuring arms arrive in the 80s, revolutionizing the measurement process: it is now possible to bring metrology tools to the production floor. This innovation eliminates the need to move manufactured parts to a dedicated, controlled environment. However, because measuring arms use a classic technology based solely on precision mechanical parts, these portable CMMs remain very sensitive to vibrations and instabilities induced by the environment. Therefore, considerable precautions are required when operating them.

1985 (3D SCANNER) 

     Although the first 3D scanners were developed in the 60s, it is not until 1985 that the laser technology is applied to 3D scanning. Prior, the 3D scanning models used lights, cameras and projectors to perform a scan. However, a lot of time and effort was required to scan objects accurately. Scanners built after 1985 use white light, lasers and shadowing to capture a given surface.

1987 (LASER TRACKER) 

     The first laser tracker prototype is developed by Dr. Kam Lau in 1986. One year later, Dr. Lau founds his company called Automated Precision Inc. that will refine tracking technology, which leads to building models with greater precision and portability. Laser trackers are still the leading solution for measuring parts of large dimensions (e.g. aircraft wings, auto frames, or large tooling). Nevertheless, for high volume measurement, they compete against another technology: photogrammetry.

2000 (OPTICAL PORTABLE CMM)

     Optical portable CMMs arrive in the metrology landscape at the beginning of the millennium. They bring together the flexibility and effectiveness of CMMs, the portability and simplicity of portable CMM, with an extra—optical portable CMMs are insensitive to vibrations, making them perfectly adapted to shop-floor measurements. The technology has seen many improvements and developments during the past years, to the point where they now compete with CMMs. They are now integrated into the inspection process and even manage to challenge the metrology market.

     As a CAD Designer science of measurement is the very core of us, and this is very necessary to understand the concept of metrology. It is used to design the conditions for observation of a phenomenon, to build and qualify the instruments required for its observation and to determine whether the results obtained are significant. Rock dating, characterisation of gravitational fields, determination of certain chemical or physical constants all involve measurement activities. Measurement enables our industries to be innovating and competitive, Competitiveness involves quality, which is the ability of a product to meet consumer and user requirements, and which involves all types of measurement in order to study and satisfy customer expectations. Quality can be demonstrated to customers through certification, itself based on measurements.

3DS Max 2013

·      What Is 3Ds Max

• Autodesk 3ds Max, formerly 3D Studio Max, is 3D computer graphics software for making 3D animations, models, and images. It was developed and produced by Autodesk.
•  It has modeling capabilities, a flexible plug-in architecture
  It is frequently used by video game developers, TV commercial studios and architectural visualization studios. It is also used for movie effects and movie pre-visualization.

Facabook Page

·      Description

·                     3ds Max has also been used in the development of 3D computer graphics for a number of video           games.

·                      Architectural and engineering design firms use 3ds Max for developing concept                                   art and previsualization.

·                Educational programs at secondary and tertiary level use 3ds Max in their courses on 3D computer graphics and computer animation.

·         Students in the first competition for 3d animation are known to use 3ds Max.

·      Introduction to 3ds Max
History

·                         1990 On Halloween, Autodesk releases 3D Studio, the first affordable (and integrated) 3D                   modeling, rendering and animation system for the PC.1992 Autodesk releases 3D Studio                      R2.In future R3, R4 Etc.

·                            In 2002 Autodesk releases 3ds max 5.In the next years max 6, max 7 released.

·                            In 2007 version name is Autodesk 3ds max 2008.At that time we worked on 3ds max 2012                   and 2018.

·      Features

• ·         Character Studio
• ·         Scene Explorer
• ·         DWG import
• ·         Texture assignment
• ·         General key framing
• ·         Architecture 3D modeling with realistic render images.

·      Advantages

The main advantages of 3Ds Max  are:

• ·         Save time and money and reduce errors with the dynamic engineering model.
• ·         Increase value to client by delivering more design alternatives in less time.
• ·         Clearly communicate design intent and complete final proposals with realistic 3D rendering.
• ·         Complete projects faster and reduce the chance of coordination errors.
• ·         Easy to transfer the file and accepted to many more other software of CAM.
• ·         Show different area of one model.
• ·         We can present walkthrough video of our modal.
• ·         Caddy Improvements.

·      Industry usage

·         Many recent films have made use of 3ds Max, or previous versions of the program under previous names, in CGI animation, such as Avatar and 2012

·         3ds Max has also been used in the development of 3D computer graphics for a number of video games.

·         Architectural and engineering design firms use 3ds Max for developing concept art and pre –visualization

Light

What is light?

Light, electromagnetic radiation that can be detected by the human eye. There are many sources of light. A body at a given temperature emits a characteristic spectrum of black-body radiation. A simple thermal source is sunlight , the radiation emitted by the Chromosphere of the Sun at around 6,000 kelvins (5,730 degrees Celsius; 10,340 degrees Fahrenheit) peaks in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum when plotted in wavelength units and roughly 44% of sunlight energy that reaches the ground is visible.Another example is incandescent light bulbs, which emit only around 10% of their energy as visible light and the remainder as infrared. A common thermal light source in history is the glowing solid particles in flames, but these also emit most of their radiation in the infrared, and only a fraction in the visible spectrum.

Day lighting

As the Sun crosses the sky, it may appear to be red, orange, yellow or white depending on its position. The changing color of the Sun over the course of the day is mainly a result of scattering of light and is not due to changes in black-body radiation. The blue color of the sky is caused by Rayleigh scattering of the sunlight from the atmosphere, which tends to scatter blue light more than red light..For colors based on black-body theory, blue occurs at higher temperatures, while red occurs at lower, cooler, temperatures. This is the opposite of the cultural associations attributed to colors, in which red represents hot, and blue cold.

History of Lighting

In the beginning, there was light. Everyone knows that part. But how did we learn to control and use it for ourselves? This history highlights several technologies that have been used to produce light: flame from wood, oil and gas; arc or glow from electricity; and the fluorescence of minerals. 

                                                  Sun 

65 million years BC                   Fire 

450 BC                                      Oil Lamp (Egypt) 

1808 AD                                    Carbon Arc Lamp(Davy) 

1879 AD                                    Incandescent Lamp (Edison) 

1906 AD                                    High Pressure Mercury Discharge Lamp 

1910 AD                                    Drawn Tungsten Filament Lamp 

1923 AD                                    Low Pressure Sodium Vapor Lamp 

1924 AD                                    Gas Filled Incandescent Lamp 

1933 AD                                    Fluorescent Discharge Lamp 

1958 AD                                    Laser Beam Light Source 

Carbon-Arc Lamp:- 

Jablochk off electric arc light. Carbons are side-by-side, separated by plaster. Usually, more than one “candle” was placed inside a diffusing globe to reduce the glare of the arc and distribute the light uniformly.

Kerosene lamps:- 

Kerosene lamps of the 19th century. They all used the kerosene burner developed by Michael Dietz in 1868. The “Dietz burner” became a worldwide standard.

Electric incandescent lighting:-

The first commercial incandescent lamps of Joseph Swan (left) and Thomas Edition (right). Swan’s lamp used a cellulose filament and spring-clip mechanism to hold the lamp and deliver electric power. Edison’s used a bamboo filament and a screw base. Edison’s base became a worldwide standard.

Coal gas system:-

Early coal gas system. The gas generator is on the right, showing the retort holding coal and the fire used to heat it. The water scrubber in the middle shows gas being bubbled through water to remove impurities. The storage tank on the left has an inverted cylinder counter-balanced over water. This arrangement provided a more-or-less constant gas pressure at the outlet. On top of the tank are typical, very early gas burners.

Sodium discharge lighting:-

Engineers George Inman and Richard Thayer lead the team at General Electric in Cleveland, Ohio, to develop the fluorescent lamp.

Architectural lighting design:-

It is a field within architecture, interior design and electrical engineering that is concerned with the design of lighting systems, including natural light, electric light, or both, to serve human needs. 

The design process takes account of:

• The kind of human activity for which lighting is to be provided
• The amount of light required
• The color of the light as it may affect the views of particular objects and the environment as a whole
• The distribution of light within the space to be lighted, whether indoor or outdoor
• The effect of the lightened system itself on the user

Importance of Lighting in Interior Design

The lighting in a home changes the mood of a room just as it does the perceived size of a room. Placement and type are important aspects of interior design, and they work in conjunction with color selections, room size, availability of natural light and furniture selection. The elements that come together when the right lighting is achieved transform a room into a seamless combination of functionality and style.

Color Management 

The use of lighting can add to or subtract from the overall colors of a room or from only those surfaces the light is meant to enhance. Darker colors make a room feel smaller and cramped, while light-colored walls do the opposite. The illusion of space is defined by light reflected off of the surfaces of the walls. Some types of lighting help with this illusion by further illuminating the walls. In addition, directional lighting, such as a track light, can soften the wall colors. There is also recessed can lighting, which has a soft, downward glow that illuminates the floors, not walls. This is opposed to lights hung from the center of the room, which provide ambient illumination, or wall lighting. In both cases, this can affect how light or dark a colored section can appear.

Directional Lighting 

The lighting in a room either provides illumination for the entirety of the room, or it highlights very specific elements. Track lighting is the perfect example of positional lighting. Hung from the ceiling, the adjustable necks and lamps can be pointed at specific elements, such as a wall painting, the vase of flowers on an entryway table or the bar top or kitchen island. Consider mounting them on the walls, also. Special picture and mirror frames also have built-in lighting to highlight specific areas on a wall. Recessed lighting can be used in floors and ceilings to create vertical beams of light as opposed to an overall glow from central light fixtures hanging from a ceiling.

Functionality 

One major role of lighting in the interior setting is functionality. Lighting needs to serve a purpose, or it simply wastes electricity. Chandeliers are not only used in large, open foyers, entryways and rooms because of their centrally themed placement but also because they provide excellent illumination for the room. Wall lights add length and size, visually, to an entryway hall, as well as light the way. Consider the style of lighting you want to ensure you get the best directional or luminescent type for the setting. Look into task-specific lighting for desks and other work areas where functionality is more important than overall room illumination.

Space 

Both natural and man-made lighting help with the illusion of space. For a darker room, find ways to bring in more full-spectrum natural light. If the room does not have sufficient lighting, it will feel cramped. This is worsened by close-proximity furniture arrangements, such as coffee table, end table, sofa, chair and love seat combinations in a smaller setting. Corner lamps, wall sconces and centrally hanging lights on the ceiling help brighten a room if natural lighting is not available and help create a visually larger space. This applies to any setting -- home or office. Natural lighting is preferred above man-made lighting because it shows off colors better and adds to the visual space of a room by bouncing off reflective surfaces. Consider skylights or large windows if you want more natural light, or use sheer drapes and curtains to allow the maximum amount of light from your current windows.

Introduction:-

AutoCAD is a commercial computer-aided design (CAD) and drafting software application. Some time we known as (CADD) .Developed and Authorised by Autodesk .  AutoCAD was first released in December 1982 as a desktop app running on microcomputers with internal graphics controllers. Prior to the introduction of AutoCAD, most commercial CAD programs run on mainframe computers or minicomputers, with each CAD operator (user) working at a separate graphics terminal.Some of the new features include:

 AutoCAD 2018 (Version 22.0) release date is March 21st 2017. there are bit of changes of the overview work space in this version.

SHX Text Recognition: – Adobe’s PDF file format doesn’t recognize AutoCAD SHX fonts. When a PDF file is created from a drawing, text that was defined with SHX fonts is stored as geometry in the PDF. If the PDF file is then imported into a DWG file, the original SHX text is then imported as geometry and not recognized as text.

In the 2018 release of AutoCAD, we are offered a SHX text recognition tool that enables you to select imported PDF geometry representing SHX text and convert to the necessary text objects. You can access this from the Recognize SHX Text tool (PDFSHXTEXT command) on the Insert ribbon tab.

Quick Access Toolbar – The Layer Control option is now part of the Quick Access Toolbar menu. While it is turned off by default, you can now set it to display in the toolbar along with other tools you frequently use.

Rubber-band Line Color – When moving the cursor between two points within AutoCAD, the rubber-band line will stretch dynamically with the drawing area. The example below shows that this looks like.

With the release of AutoCAD 2018, you can control the color along with other interface elements. You can access this control from the Colors button on the Display tab of the Options dialog box.

    External Reference Path Enhancements:- Save time and minimise frustration with tools to fix broken paths for externally referenced files.Enhancements in AutoCAD 2018 help reduce issues caused by broken reference paths.

 Now, in 2018, you can assign a relative path for a file even when the host drawing is unnamed. If you select the reference file in the External References palette, the Saved Path column displays a full path with an asterisk prefix to indicate a change will take place when saving the host drawing. A property in the Details pane also indicates the reference file is 

    High-Resolution  Monitor Support:- Enjoy the best possible viewing experience ever even on 4K and higher resolution displays.AutoCAD is continuing to improve support for high resolution monitors to ensure the best user experience. User interface elements such as Start tab, Command line, palettes, dialog boxes, toolbars, ViewCube, pick box, and grips are appropriately scaled and displayed.

    Select objects off-screen:-Selected objects stay in the selection set even if you pan or zoom off screen.

   

User interface :- Work intuitively with common dialogue boxes and toolbars.

Share design views :- Publishes design views of your drawing to a secure location for viewing and sharing in a web browser.

AutoCAD mobile app :- View, create, edit and share CAD drawings on your mobile device with the AutoCAD mobile app.AutoCAD Mobile comes with every subscription to AutoCAD. This is great for working on-the-go. You can view, create, edit, and share CAD drawings on a tablet or smartphone, eliminating the need to print drawings to bring to job sites or client visits.

Text to Mtext :- Convert combinations of text and Mtext objects to a single Mtext object.

CNC

Computer Numerical Control

        Computer numerical control (CNC) is the numerical control system in which a dedicated computer is built into the control to perform basic and advanced NC functions. CNC controls are also referred to as soft wired NC systems because most of their control functions are implemented by the control software programs. CNC is a computer assisted process to control general purpose machines from instructions generated by a processor and stored in a memory system. 

Elements of a CNC System:

       

                                                                                        A CNC system consist of the following 6 major elements:

• Input Device
• Machine Control Unit
• Machine Tool
• Driving System
• Feedback Devices
• Display Unit 

Key Areas of Knowledge:            

               As with any subject, the more time you invest in learning about CNC and the related technologies, the more you will get from it. To achieve the best results, there are a few key areas which you should concentrate on:

          Computer skills One requirement common to all aspects of CNC work is how to use a computer to perform basic tasks. You will be working with computers and computer programs during almost all the steps of the process as you design your parts and need to understand basic operations such as starting and stopping programs, saving, copying and deleting files, finding files stored on your computer and installing programs and updates. Your CNC machine is also run by a computer, this may be a standalone PC or a dedicated Control Box. This guide will assume a basic knowledge of computers and the Windows operating system, if you don’t feel comfortable with your current computer skills or are new to running a PC then it would be well worth taking a basic course or buying a general guide to working with your PC. 

         

            Design & Tool path Software Before you can cut anything with a CNC, you need to first create the design layout that the machine is going to follow to cut the parts. The software you choose will play a significant role in successfully creating projects with your CNC. Simply put, the design software will allow you to transform “pencil and paper” ideas to a set of instructions used to run the machine. When done correctly, the end result will be a physical product you can touch and hold that has value and purpose and a great sense of achievement.

          Operating and Maintaining your CNC Machine If you currently own or use a CNC machine, you already know how important it is to keep it properly maintained and adjusted, to know and understand its limitations and how to set it up correctly to run a job. If you don’t own a machine yet, then it’s important to spend time thinking about what you want your machine to be able to produce, this can eliminate a lot of future frustration. Cost will always be an important factor, but realize that you need to balance that with capabilities, because nothing can be more expensive than a machine that cannot do what you need. For example, if you want to cut large sheet goods then a desktop model will probably not be your best choice. However, if you only have room for a small machine this may be your only option and you need to understand its limitations on how large a part it can cut. Only you can determine what this balance will be for your situation and budget.

            Some important considerations when researching the purchase of a machine or when looking at building one yourself include size, speed and accuracy and the technical support offered both before and after the purchase. As with software, the importance of a company’s reputation, support, and an active website and/or forum cannot be understated.

           Every CNC machine needs software to directly drive its movement; this is commonly referred to as the ‘Control Software’. Some common generic third-party packages that do this include “Mach3” and “WINCNC”. Many manufactures create and use their own proprietary systems specific to their own models and these may be installed on an external PC or be loaded onto a dedicated Control Box attached to the machine.

          Most control systems offer settings that can significantly improve the smoothness and accuracy of your machine when correctly set. While this goes beyond the scope of this guide, it is something worth investigating for your particular CNC. Remember, the best designed project will not cut well on an incorrectly “tuned” machine.

Knowledge of Materials and Tooling

            When it comes to obtaining the best possible results, you cannot forget the material you are working with or the tool you are using to cut it. The type of material will factor into every stage of the Project – from initial concept through final finishing. 

               The common materials people using CNC Routers work with include; wood, plastics, dense foam board and softer (non-ferrous) metals (brass, aluminum, etc.). If you are not already familiar with the type of material you want to use, there are many sources of information that can help you. 

             Typical questions you must answer for the type of material include proper tool (bit) selection, how fast you can move that tool through that material (Feed Rate and Plunge Rate), how much material you can remove at one time (Pass Depth and Cut Depth) and how fast the bit should be rotating (Spindle or Router speed). Typically suppliers of tooling offer information on the correct settings for the router bits they sell. 

Workflow Overview of a typical CNC project:

             When you step back and look at a complete project from start to finish, you can identify a series of major steps that will form the “Workflow” to complete it. Having a good understanding of this process will help you start to appreciate where the different software packages and setup procedures fit into the overall creation of parts with your CNC.

                 Concept This is the idea for what you are going to make. This may range from a specific customer requirement, something you have sketched on a napkin or a ready to go file that someone has already prepared. At this stage you need to try and think through the other processes in the job to help to get the best approach to achieving it. You should also assemble any reference material you will use to help design the part such as photos, data from the customer, design sketches etc. 

                   Design (CAD – Computer Aided Design) For the design you need create the computer data that will define either the 2D or 3D forms you want to cut on your CNC. This is done in what is typically called “CAD software” and you may also hear this type of software referred to as a drafting, drawing or design program. The finish point of the Design stage is to have prepared all the 2D data (Vectors) or 3D data (Components) you require to start calculating the specific movements the CNC machine will follow, these moves are typically referred to as the “Toolpaths”. Most of our customers use one of the Vectric products (VCarve Pro or Aspire) to do their design although there are many other design (CAD) programs available for either 2D drawing or 3D modeling and depending on the file format export options available, this data can be saved and imported into the Vectric programs for Too path creation. 

                    Toolpaths (CAM – Computer Aided Manufacturing) Once the design is complete, you will start to calculate the actual paths that will drive where the tool will move on the machine, as previously stated these are called “Toolpaths”. Creating your Toolpaths is the key stage in going from the virtual world of a computer design to the reality of the physical world. At this point you will start to take into account the shape and size of the tool, the type of movement you want the tool to make (the shape you want it to leave in the material) and appropriate settings for how fast the tool can be moved and how much material can be removed safely. Once the Toolpaths have been calculated the software will let you Preview how they will look in a virtual piece of material. This lets you check that they are doing what you expected. Once you are happy the Toolpaths are correct then they can be saved in a format that is appropriate for your particular CNC. 

                   Machining Once your tool paths have been saved then you transfer them over to the CNC. At this stage you need to set the CNC to match the job setup you specified in the Design/Machining software. This will involve setting up your material in the right orientation, and making sure it will be secure while you’re cutting it. Then you need to load the correct tool and tell the machine where the X, Y and Z reference position is for the tool tip (normally this is the zero position for each axis), again this will be to replicate how it was set in the software so all the positions and sizes you specified in the software will be replicated at the machine.

                         Finish and Assembly  are obviously going to vary dramatically depending on the type of job you are doing and the material you are cutting. We will not cover this in detail in this document but it is important to be aware of the finish you plan to use and where applicable use appropriate options in the software or on the machine to help minimize or aid with your finishing process. 

Applications of CNC machine: CNC machine I are widely used in the metal cutting industry and the best used to produce the following types of products:

• Parts with complicated contours.
• Parts requiring close tolerance and or good repeat-ability.
• Parts requiring expensive Jigs And Fixtures if produce on conventional machines.
• Parts that may have several engineering changes such as during the development stage of a prototype.
• In case where human error could be extremely costly.
• Parts that are needed in a hurry.
• A small batch lot or short production runs.

Classification of CNC Machine: